medieval-religion: Scholarly discussions of medieval religion and culture
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Subject: TMR 13.02.16 Anderson, The Discernment of Spirits (Stoudt)
Anderson, Wendy Love. <i>The Discernment of Spirits. Assessing Visions
and Visionaries in the Late Middle Ages</i>. Series: Spätmittelalter,
Humanismus, Reformation/Studies in the Late Middle Ages, Humanism and
the Reformation 63. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2011. Pp. x, 266.
EUR 89.00. ISBN-13: 9783161516641.
Reviewed by Debra L. Stoudt
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
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The discernment of spirits is central not only to the experience of
the visionary but also to that of the prophet, the reformer, the
magician--and occasionally the heretic. Identified by St. Paul in his
first letter to the Corinthians (12:10) as a gift of the Holy Spirit,
the ability to discern spirits serves as a token of divine favor, one
bestowed on a variety of individuals throughout history. These men and
women, clerics and laypersons are remarkable not only for the gift
they have received but for its unique manifestation in their lives. In
her engaging study Wendy Love Anderson traces how prophecies and
visions are "received and understood by the visionaries themselves and
by the people around them between the twelfth and the fifteenth
centuries in Christian Europe" (2). The examination is an outgrowth of
Anderson's 2002 University of Chicago dissertation, the title of
which, "Free Spirits, Presumptuous Women, and False Prophets: The
Discernment of Spirits in the Late Middle Ages," draws attention to
the marginal role in society played by many recipients of the gift.
The revised title and the study itself give precedence to the
historical context of the experiences and the tradition of commentary
that evolved concerning the <i>discretio spirituum</i>.
The introduction begins with the response of delight by Christina of
Markyate around 1115 to a vision of the Virgin Mary alongside the
skeptical reaction of Veronica Binasco in the second half of the
fifteenth century to a similar experience. What transpired in the
intervening centuries? What criteria merged by which true revelations
could be distinguished from false ones? What authority did religious
and secular powers wield concerning such matters? In the subsequent
chapters Anderson undertakes a contextualization of the responses to
these queries, linking the responses of succeeding generations to
explain the remarkable shift over time.
Anderson proposes the rediscovery of prophecy by European Christians
in the twelfth century as the impetus for change. The visionary
experiences of Franciscan clerics stimulate debate on the topic in the
thirteenth century, and by the fifteenth century it is the visionary
experiences of lay women take center stage. The shift attests to the
gendering of theological discernment discourse and results in a
multifaceted discourse on the <i>discretio spirituum</i> in terms of
gender, ecclesiastical status, and the struggle for symbolic power by
the early fifteenth century (11). Anderson argues that the question of
authority maintains preeminence over that of gender with regard to the
gift of discernment (7), but it might be contended as well that the
two are inextricably intertwined.
In a section on the visionary context of discernment (4-8) Anderson
references recent literature, including Nancy Caciola's <i>Discerning
Spirits: Divine and Demonic Possession in the Middle Ages</i> (2003)
and Dyan Elliott's <i>Proving Woman: Female Spirituality and
Inquisitional Culture in the Later Middle Ages</i> (2004). She
identifies the scholarly niche her study fills, namely that "[t]he
late medieval discourse on the discernment of spirits was a visionary
project (in both senses), a series of reactions to key events in the
history of Christianity, and a dynamic conversation across several
centuries addressing widely diverse claims to religious authority
within late medieval Christendom" (8).
The first chapter outlines the biblical and patristic origins of the
Christian characterization of the discernment of spirits, with its
occasional exhortations to beware of false prophets and claims that
the clergy possess the gift <i>ex officio</i>. Augustine's tripartite
understanding of visions--corporeal, spiritual, and intellectual--
remains an essential concept through the Middle Ages, but the advent
of the monastic tradition introduces a difference nuance to
<i>discretio spirituum</i>, one that reflects "communal moderation"
(36). The chapter concludes with the advice of Bernard of Clairvaux on
the subject and a brief examination of the reception of the visionary
experiences of Hildegard of Bingen, Joachim of Fiore and Elisabeth of
Schönau at the end of the eleventh and the beginning of the twelfth
century, focusing on the question of whether each is expected to prove
her or his prophetic status and how each understands that status.
Chapter 2 explores the impact of the new order and the new mysticisms
on discernment in the thirteenth century. What proof is needed to
confirm an individual's status as prophet and who evaluates that proof
become central themes of papal letters and canon law. The diverse
opinions within the Franciscan Order are exemplified by the skeptical
stance of David of Augsburg toward the trustworthiness of revelations
and visions as well as the more defensive posture of Peter of John
Olivi. In the course of the fourteenth century Olivi's writings are
interpreted by other authors, e.g., Arnald of Villanova and Augustinus
of Ancona. Anderson situates the writings of this time in the context
of the historical ages set forth by Joachim of Fiore at the close of
the twelfth century and the growing instability of the Church that
culminated in the Avignon papacy of the fourteenth century.
The focus of Chapter 3 lies squarely on the writings of a number of
Germanic theological figures. Henry of Friemar "the Elder" sets forth
criteria for the discernment of the spirits in the tradition of the
medieval scholastics. However, his critique of the "philosophers" in
favor of the holy men inspired by grace serves as a precursor to the
mystically informed writings of a number of Dominicans, especially
Henry Suso and John Tauler. Suso uses the Middle High German
<i>underscheit/d</i> to translate Latin <i>discretio</i> as well as
<i>distinctio</i> and touts the potential role of visionary
experiences in the spiritual guidance he offers. In a similar vein,
Tauler provides homiletic advice as to how to distinguish the divine
from the diabolic. The Dutch mystical tradition is exemplified by Jan
Ruusbroec, who examines discernment as part of the inward life,
providing direction for those who might be tempted to spiritual error.
Anderson underscores the didactic nature of the writings of these
figures and examines the impact of the pronouncements in light of the
Free Spirit heresy, which she links to the "misapplication of reason"
in understanding spiritual teachings (122).
Chapter 4 is concerned with three individuals caught up in the
historico-religious events of the time: Birgitta of Sweden, Pedro of
Aragon, and Catherine of Siena. All are advocates of the return of the
papacy to Rome, and their influence is examined in view of their
authority as shaped by "the proper place of revelation within the
institutional Church" (126). In all three cases the experiential
relationship with Christ serves a pivotal function. Anderson
ascertains a shift to a post-Schism idea of discernment, in which an
outside authority is called upon to validate the visionary experience.
Chapter 5 explores the role of medieval universities during the years
of the Great Western Schism in the debate regarding discernment. Most
prominent reformers are university-based theologians eager to
participate in church affairs. Drawing on the commentary of previous,
they conclude that the right to determine the authenticity of visions
and revelations is indeed their prerogative (189). In this regard
Anderson examines the influential comments of Pierre d'Ailly on the
question of true and false prophecy as well as the doctrine of
discernment of Henry of Langenstein, who identifies false prophets as
those who lack <i>ratio</i> as well as <i>discretio</i> (175). It is
left to the pupil of both men, Jean Gerson, to champion their ideas.
The chapter concludes with an excursus on critiques by various
scholars of the last century concerning the writings of the above-
mentioned theologians and reformers, with a focus on medieval women's
spirituality and the gendering of discourse. There have been similar
debates regarding the central figures in other chapters, and one may
wonder why only in this particular case the topic is explored in
depth.
Anderson's argument for a nuanced understanding of Gerson's ideas and
their evolution over time provides the context for the first part of
Chapter 6. The mature Gerson is convinced that theologians must not
only be educated, they must also have an "ineffable encounter with the
divine" in order to provide guidance regarding <i>discretio
spirituum</i> (224). He becomes increasingly moralistic as he compares
theologians and visionaries and ever more systematic as he establishes
authorial hierarchies for discerning spirits. Anderson interprets
Gerson's disparaging comments toward visionary women as more of a
critique of male confessors and the institutional church than of the
females themselves (213). However, at this time the topic of female
visionaries is a contentious one--as it has been throughout history--
exemplified by the case of Joan of Arc, whom Gerson defends in
<i>Super facto puellae</i>, although his arguments are misrepresented
at her trial two years after his death. The concluding pages review
the salient points of the study. Anderson also offers a glimpse into
the "Future of Discernment," with references to Savonarola as well as
Reformation and post-Reformation debates on the subject.
Anderson's presentation of the topic is even-handed, but any study is
selective by necessity. Women's spirituality is explored at various
points but seldom takes center stage. Although devils are given their
due, the topic of witchcraft is avoided. Notably absent from
discussion are representatives of the English mystical and theological
tradition, aside from the introductory reference to Christina of
Markyate. Likewise the voices of female spiritual charges of the
German Dominicans of the Rhineland might have been heard or evidence
from their writings presented to support (or refute) the efficacy of
the spiritual advisors' guidance. Given the introductory chapter
summaries (13-16), there may have been the expectation of more
extensive commentary regarding certain topics, e.g., the choice of
vernacular languages among German and Dutch writers in the thirteenth
century. However, these <i>desiderata</i> do not detract from the
argument the author sets out to make. Anderson achieves her stated
goal: she succeeds in neatly fitting together selected pieces of the
history of discernment of spirits to provide a valuable, readable
description of the contours of its evolution in the late Middle Ages.
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