There has been so much discussion on the resurgence of Pilates methods of
training that I thought it might be helpful to write a lengthy commentary on
this conditioning system, based on my own exposure to Pilates training,
various Pilates books and dozens of websites (almost all of which are
commercial advertisements for classes or certification).
In all of these sources, I was unable to find any quality research which
supports the claims of Pilates or shows its superiority over other
well-structured multifaceted varied systems of conditioning. All claims to
its excellence are based upon comparison with limited bodybuilding regimes
and anecdotal testimonials by clients who have had little exposure to the
wide world of modern strength science. If there is anyone who can quote some
definitive peer-reviewed research, please share it with us.
PILATES HISTORY
Joseph Pilates was born in Germany in 1880 and grew up in England, where he
was interned during World War I and used this time to become a nurse. His
frail childhood apparently inspired him to pursue a path of lifelong fitness
that led him to take up bodybuilding and several other sports to become a
competent skier, diver, boxer, and gymnast.
It is apparent that the time spent in those old gymnastics and bodybuilding
training halls laid many of the foundations for the design of his special
training machines and his training methods. While working as a nurse, he
inventively used the springs and frames of hospital beds to make variations
of what he had seen used by gymnastics and physique coaches of his time.
There can be little doubt that he, like so many young men of his time were
impressed by the innovative approaches of training legends such as Eugene
Sandow, who consulted for many kings, queens and heads of State at the time.
During the 1920s, he moved to New York, where he opened his first formal
studio, which ultimately attracted well-known dancers such as George
Ballanchine and Martha Graham to train there regularly, which provided an
invaluable marketing boost to his career in the USA. Since his work grew up
in the world of gymnastics, an aesthetic art which has strong allegiances
with ballet, it obviously received sympathetic support from the emerging
dance community in the USA, which, until that time was vastly overshadowed by
the dancing giants of Europe.
Consequently, his methods became very well publicised in the dance and drama
community and, until recently, have remained confined largely to these same
communities that spread his method in its earliest days. Also not surprising
is that some of his latter day disciples have astutely discerned that any
intriguing apparently novel systems of fitness can make a fortune in the
fitness and shape gullible West. In this regard, Romana Kryzanowska, his one
Master Teacher, who, after Joseph's death, was asked by his wife, Clara,
to continue with Joseph's teachings and today she serves as the guru of the
Pilates movement.
SOME PILATES METHODS & MACHINES
The following website summarises many of the Pilates methods and machines,
giving photographs of devices that clearly have been derived from the world
of gymnastics and early fitness training, as anyone with a reasonable
background in gymnastics history and coaching will tell you:
This site introduces Pilates thus: <<The 'Pilates Method' is not just
exercise, however. It is a series of controlled movements engaging your body
and mind, performed on specifically designed exercise apparatus and
supervised by extensively trained teachers.>>
http://www.pilates-studio.com/about.htm
Of course, this same sort of preface may be applied to many different fitness
and health training regimes, especially those drawn from the world of
scientific strength training (see, for example, the major aspects of this
field by skimming through the Table of Contents of Siff & Verkhoshansky
"Supertraining" at this site:
http://www.geocities.com/Colosseum/8682/siff.htm).
High Chair (Modified Gymnastics Staking Pommel)
The Reformer (A modified rowing trainer with pulleys)
The Mat (A fat mat!)
The Pedipull (A modified pulley machine)
The Magic Circle (A type of fat floor mat)
The Cadillac (Modified type of Parallel and Horizontal Bars)
The Low Chair (Modified Gymnastics Staking Pommel)
The Spine Corrector Barrel (Low Level type of Pommel Horse)
Originally Pilates devised over 500 specific exercises using five major
pieces of his modified gymnastics apparatus, while his pupils have added
something like another 1500 variations to increase this list to its current
status today to develop the body more uniformly, in their opinion.
He baptised one of his central principles with the name "Contrology" to
define his general programme of fitness exercises which showed a clear
appreciation of early Grecian aesthetics of training, their coordination and
balance of body and mind, and the burgeoning training schemes of leaders such
as Sandow, Professor Attila, George Hackenschmidt and Dr Krayevsky.
According to Pilates (in his book "Your Health", 1934), Contrology "is the
conscious control of all muscular movements of the body. It is the correct
utilization and application of the leverage principles afforded by the bones
comprising the skeletal framework of the body, a complete knowledge of the
mechanism of the body, and a full understanding of the principles of
equilibrium and gravity as applied to the movements of the body in motion, at
rest and in sleep."
Interestingly, the above words are very similar to what Sandow wrote when he
championed the introduction of physical education and sport as compulsory
school subjects and the regular examination of pupils by doctors and
dentists. Therefore, it is highly relevant to summarise the fitness world in
which Pilates grew up.
THE INFLUENCE OF SANDOW & EARLY FITNESS LEADERS
(Extracted from Siff & Verkhoshansky "Supertraining" 1999 Ch 1)
The great Sandow, born in Koningsberg in East Russia in 1867, was sought out
by presidents and rulers from all around the world, with his book, "Life is
Movement" being received enthusiastically by nine kings and queens and many
princes of Europe, as well as US Presidents William Taft and Woodrow Wilson.
Besides defeating many strongmen of his time, he was a generous sponsor of
many charitable causes and an early champion of more hygienic conditions of
working and living for all, including the central role of formal fitness and
health management. As part of his vision, he pressed for the introduction of
physical education and sport as compulsory school subjects, and the regular
examination of pupils by school doctors and dentists. At the same time, he to
ured the world lecturing to promote physical culture as a means of improving
quality of life, with his contributions being described as follows by the
"Mirror of Life and Sport" (8 April 1911):
" His Majesty King George has conferred an unique honour upon Mr. Eugene
Sandow, the world-renowned exponent and founder of scientific physical
culture. Mr. Sandow just having had the honour of being appointed Professor
of Scientific Physical Culture to his Majesty. The keen interest which the
King has always taken in the physical welfare of his people is well-known,
and there is no desire more dear to his Majesty’s heart than to improve the
conditions of life for the masses.
Mr. Sandow’s appointment must be regarded as a striking recognition of the
undoubted benefits of scientific physical culture, and there is no doubt that
the interest shown by his Majesty in the subject will considerably increase
the popularity of the science of which Mr. Sandow is the principal authority.
Mr. Sandow is a man who has risen by his own unaided effort to a position in
which he is not only a national but a world factor in the science of
improvement of the human body and the combating of that physical degeneracy
which in former eras has always accompanied the advances of civilisation."
In many respects, therefore, Sandow was one of the most important founding
fathers of the fitness revolution, revealing that the modern phenomenon of
science-based physical training is by no means novel or innovative.
Interestingly, Sandow’s methods focused largely on the development of
strength and skill as the foundation of health, an approach which was almost
completely deposed more than half a century later by cardiovascular
scientists such as Dr Kenneth Cooper of the USA, who massively downplayed the
role of these fitness qualities and stressed ‘aerobic’ fitness as being far
more important to general health. It has taken more than 25 years for the
quality of strength advocated by Sandow to return to academic acceptance.
In Russia, during this same period, the eminent Polish-born physician,
Vladislav Krayevsky (Krajewski), founded the St Petersburg Amateur
Weightlifting Society (1885), having visited various German towns to
familiarise himself with what was already known throughout Europe as weightlif
ting or ‘heavy athletics’, because of his great interest in the use of
physical culture for the prevention and treatment of illness. Many
prominent scientists, artists and athletes became his pupils, including
another famous strongman, George Hackenschmidt, who credited Krayevsky for
teaching him all that he knew. Hackenschmidt, in his book, "The Way to
Live", added that some of the world’s strongest men of that era, including
Sandow, were trained according to Krayevsky’s system.
Krayevsky's considerable knowledge in medicine, psychology, physical culture,
methods of using exercises and organizational abilities made him an
acknowledged leader in weightlifting sports (including wrestling). He not
only promoted weightlifting, taught classes and organized competitions, but
also lifted himself, achieving significant success in barbell lifts.
Krayevsky wrote two of his fundamental works during the period 1896-1899,
"The Catechism of Health - Rules for Athletes" and "The Development of
Physical Strength with Kettlebells and without Kettlebells" (1900).
Krayevsky displayed an excellent knowledge of the history of physical culture
and all forms of gymnastics. He paid special attention to therapeutic
gymnastics in his "Diagram of Medico Gymnastic Uses" and its accompanying
detailed commentary, a book that was widely read by many people in the
training world of the time. Krayevsky was very familiar with Swedish
gymnastics and noted its therapeutic applications, but his concern with the
lack of scientific substantiation of the Swedish system led him to recruit
Russian experimentalists to research it.
Many of Krayevsky's methodological recommendations are still valid. These
recommendations include medical control of the athlete's health, regularity
of workouts and planned sequencing of increasing loads, multi-faceted
physical development, psychological management, observation of wellness rules
(especially sleep) and refraining from the use of alcohol and smoking.
Krayevsky was especially concerned with forming correct breathing habits and
methods of combating fatigue, and felt that many of the limitations imposed
by heredity could be overcome by appropriate training.
Many of these early strength pioneers devised interesting and unique training
weights and machines, including cable machines, variable resistance machines
using cams and levers, elastic springs and cables, friction resistance
devices, kettlebells, thick-grip bars, hollow-ended barbells and dumbbells
whose weight could be increased by adding lead shot, odd-shaped bars,
isolation machines, weighted boots and various throwing devices. Yet there
are those today who lay claims of originality to designing these machines
more than 50 years after their original manufacture. In addition, a large
number of weight training, bodybuilding exercises and techniques which are
believed to be original today had been tried and tested in that burgeoning
exploration era of finding the best methods of strength training.
BACK TO PILATES
In his system, Pilates stressed the importance of using fewer sets of few
repetitions of compound movements that require significant motor skill and
coordination (like well-organised strength training!), as opposed to the
prolonged repetition of fairly automatic movements (like modern aerobics and
jogging!). His reason for this was that endless repetition of unchallenging
reflexive routines tends to decrease the degree of mental involvement,
whereas carefully executed sets of very few repetitions of skilled movements
tend to offer a better balance of mind and body training.
As we have noted above, all of these principles were abundantly evident in
the work of Sandow, Krayevsky and other early masters. The major difference
is that Pilates entered the world of dance to astutely promote his commercial
career there and stressed the sale of his gymnastics-derived devices, while
the other fitness leaders of that era allowed clients to use anything and
everything that might be appropriate for any given individual, thereby laying
the foundations for all modern fitness centres anf gyms.
In one respect, we should be grateful that the Pilates adaptations of the
conditioning methods of his time has now offered a way out of the frequently
repetitive and mindless militaristic group fitness classes. Not that the
latter cannot play a valid role in the attainment of some aspects of general
fitness, but they generally tend to be rather impoverished in terms of
broader mind-body enhancement of strength, power, flexibility and motor
control (unless the instructor happens to be far more creative and
unconventional than the average).
Moreover, the likelihood of injury in Pilates type exercises tends to be far
less than in most forms of aerobics class. However, the Pilates neglect of
strong ballistic movement, high impact, heavier loading and high power output
movements with loaded implements in free space also create deficits in
all-round human development.
Even if Pilates does not actively add weight training methods to its
repertoire of activities, it would go part of the way towards reducing these
deficiencies by involving some of the Specific Activation and Specific
Relaxation methods from PNF, as well as some of the pattern variations from
that discipline.
In fact, if you are fairly well versed in the principles and procedures of
PNF, and you are able to modify the traditional Knott-Voss activities to
include pulley machines, some gymnastics apparatus, dumbbells, elastic bands,
physio balls and a variable bench, you will be able to offer a very extensive
form of challenging and productive training that Pilates will struggle to
rival. If you are willing to include a few methods from the world of
resistance training (Weightlifting, Powerlifting and Bodybuilding) and
martial arts, then your system will go far beyond what Pilates can ever offer.
Before anyone extolls the originality and uniqueness of all that Pilates used
in his training system, we have to recall that a very sincere Pilates
inadvertently came upon or adapted patterns and procedures that mirror some
of the methods used in PNF and weight training, as pioneered by other hugely
influential fitness gurus who grew up in the European arena of late 19th and
early 20th century training. This does not diminish its value, but it simply
serves to place his training methods in a far more balanced light.
After all, there are still those who state categorically that
(http://bodymind.net/q&a.htm):
<<The very idea of coordinating or balancing body and mind was itself
little-appreciated in the early 20th Century by most physical fitness gurus.
At the end of the 20th Century, the concept of introducing 'spirit' into the
exercise equation still stretches the limits of appreciation of many fitness
trainers and students.>>
This could not be further from the truth, as we have noticed in examining the
fitness world into which Pilates was born. If anything, the fitness leaders
of that time were more holistically inclined than the average fitness
instructor of today (e.g., see Webster "The Iron Game", 1976).
In his 1945 book of exercises, entitled "Return to Life Through Contrology",
Pilates wrote that "Contrology is complete coordination of body, mind, and
spirit. Through Contrology you first purposefully acquire complete control of
your own body and then through proper repetition of its exercises you
gradually and progressively acquire that natural rhythm and coordination
associated with all your subconscious activities." Again, absolutely nothing
new at the time. These words simply repeat what Sandow and several of his
colleagues had said way before Pilates methods were being taught.
An oft-repeated claim is this: "You will feel better in 10 sessions, look
better in 20 sessions, and have a completely new body in 30 sessions." (
Joseph H. Pilates). If we examine this, it is equivalent to 10 weeks of
three times a week of periodised modern strength training, which, in the same
space of time easily can produce the same results as Pilates. If it doesn't,
then there is something seriously wrong with your training!
SOME PILATES RESEARCH
While searching for some published research on Pilates methods, I found this
website and thought "at last, something!", but my initial hopes waned the
moment that I read these articles.
http://www.pilates.uk.com/research/
These articles are fixated on comparing 'normal springs' with the 'special'
Pilates springs used on his 'Reformer' machine and offer no information
whatsoever on the allegedly special physiology behind Pilates. In addition,
here some extracts that reveal significant defects in the calibre of the
research:
<<Gravity versus Springs. Gravity provides a constant external resistance
throughout the range of
motion of the exercise. Springs (and other elastic media) provide an
increasing external resistance as they lengthen. Unfortunately this coincides
with shortening of the muscle and a reduction in generated force.>>
***While the acceleration due to gravity is fairly constant over the surface
of the earth, any movement against gravity involves acceleration, which means
that resistance changes throughout the range of motion. Although springs
offer resistance which increases directly with extension, training against
gravity with or without weights can also increase resistance anywhere in the
range of movement where you try to accelerate the limb or load. Movement at
every stage of joint motion involves muscle shortening, so what this remark
has to do with "coinciding with shortening of the muscle" is anyone's guess.
<<Since spring tension increases steadily with length: the area under the
force-distance curve is almost
triangular. With gravity, the resistance is constant, making the area a
complete rectangle.>>
***This last sentence reveals that the author has never undertaken any
biomechanical research, nor does he appear to know that, if the Force-Time
curve is a complete rectangle, the acceleration and deceleration phases to
and from some apparently constant peak force are vertical lines and the
acceleration in each case must be infinitely large. Even if the curve is
obtained on an isokinetic dynamometer, the acceleration and deceleration
phases cannot be vertical lines.
<<The difference between the two (the upper triangle) represents the extra
work, which has been lost. Put another way, exercise against gravity can
provide up to twice the benefit, in terms of ‘work done’, compared with
exercise against springs.>
***How does work become "lost" in the elastic resistance case? If we wish
to be pedantic, and the movement starts and ends in the same place, then no
external work is done, be it against gravity or springs. If we wish to
consider internal metabolic work, then his analysis is inappropriate and
incorrect. Even if we can calculate it accurately in both cases, the work
done depends on the magnitude of the external resistance, not simply on what
arrangement is used to produce the resistance. More significant is the fact
that there are action-specific neuromuscular programmes that will distinguish
between the training effects of springs and inertial resistance.
<<For example, on a Reformer, the spring is slightly extended at the start of
the movement (possibly by 15 cm or so). The carriage can then travel up to 70
cm, or more, depending on the exercise and the flexibility of the individual,
representing a possible 3-fold increase in resistance, from one end of the
movement to the other. Imagine lifting a weight of 10 Kg from the floor,
which gradually increases to 30 Kg as it comes to chest height, then back to
10Kg again as you lower the weight back to the floor. Clearly, this does NOT
reflect ‘real life’. >>
***Without indulging in another scientific analysis of further inaccuracies
in this extract, it is interesting that training on most Pilates machines,
especially the gliding seat, spring-resisting 'Reformer', ironically also
fail to reflect what happens in 'real life'! The author continues to
proliferate the misbelief that the only necessary and sufficient condition
for general and rehabilitative conditioning is sport specific movement. Were
this to be true, the use of all forms of resistance and supplementary
training would be entirely redundant.
SOME PILATES WEBSITES
http://www.eye.net/eye/issue/issue_04.17.97/fitness/macri.html
The following site proliferates the myth that Pilates training somehow
produces a Pilates-specific type of longer, leaner muscle and that all
strength training aims at increasing hypertrophy:
http://www.fitnesslink.com/mind/pilates.shtml
<<By learning the proper stance and correct body alignment, the client soon
feels and looks taller and leaner. The muscles are stretched and
strengthened uniformly, resulting in long, sleek muscles rather than bulk.
The idea of stretching and lengthening runs contrary to the methods used by
most of today's fitness professionals who believe that the only way to "tone"
muscle is to increase the muscle diameter. But students of Pilates swear by
his method and have even admitted to feeling taller, leaner and "better"
after only a few sessions.>>
The proof in the above article? - Anecdote, hearsay and belief, relying on
the very misleading idea that all strength training must involve bodybuilding
bulking methods.
"Pilates based" training at home:
http://www.gocarolinas.com/living/health/fitness/1999/06/0628_pilates.html
This site includes an old 'ab exercise', the supine leg flutter, at which
Pilates himself would cringe. At least the author states that "This really
isn't a Pilates exercise — it's borrowed from the military — but it's a
fabulous ab-shaper." Actually, the abs are contracted isometrically in this
exercise and serve to stabilise the pelvis, rather than to exercise the
abdominal musculature in the full range and manner that Pilates would have
recommended. This is but one example of many Pilates teachers simply
bastardising what Pilates originally taught and sometimes misrepresenting
what the grand old man preached, so don't think that if you attend a
so-called Pilates class or "Pilates based" class that you are receiving the
kosher article!
http://www.shapeshift.com/Articles/time.htm (Some Time Magazine rave trivia
on Pilates)
Some final Pilates sites:
http://www.the-method.com/
http://www.pilates.uk.com/
http://www.shapeshift.com/articles.htm (Popular Glossy Magzine articles on
Pilates)
http://www.shapeshift.com/Articles/mnf.htm (Pilates for Weightlifters and
Athletes - filled with many errors about pelvic stabilisation and use during
heavy lifting
In every single case where Pilates is compared with other forms of
conditioning, it is measured against typical bodybuilding training and never
against scientific strength training that has been used for many years in
Russia and Europe to produce the world's greatest athletes in many shapes and
sizes, all depending on the specific needs of their sports.
Thus, there are some athletes who make Pilates adherents look thoroughly out
of shape, just as there are others who make Pilates folk look like pictures
of perfection. There are many slender, aesthetically built athletes who are
considerably stronger, faster, more coordinated and more flexible that even
the most seasoned Pilates practitioners, while there are bulky bionic-looking
athletes whose all-round shape and performance is easily overshadowed by some
Pilates fans.
It is apparent that far too many Pilates disciples seem to think that all
resistance training is some narrow type of bodybuilding training which many
years ago gave birth to that myth that all weight trained athletes are bulky,
slow, inflexible and prone to injury. This sort of extrapolation from one
small aspect of strength training to prove the merits of Pilates work betrays
a serious lack of understanding and a very biased view of modern strength
training.
In fact, if Pilates teachers were to learn more about what advanced strength
training is about, they could raise Pilates methods to far greater heights.
If any of them are genuinely curious to learn some of the methods of
integrated West-East strength science, then let them examine references such
as the following:
Zatsiorsky V "Science and Practice of Strength Training" 1995
Siff MC & Verkhoshansky YV "Supertraining" 1999
Bompa T "Theory and Methodology of Training" 1983
Yessis M "Secrets of Soviet Sports Fitness & Training" 1987
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Dr Mel C Siff
Denver, USA
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