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Dear colleagues,
A while ago, I had made a request from the list regarding references/cases/experiences where design firms (architectural or industrial design preferably) have carried out design process research in their practices; and utilized the findings as a feedback for improvement of their practices. I have received numerous responses on and off list, thank you.
Here is a compilation of these references/cases (with some additional ones). The list is not at all comprehensive of a complete literature. It also includes references which may be not direct examples of research-of-practice; and not all of them are necessarily from `design` discipline, but also include education, planning, management etc- but may be applied to design. I have given more lengthy notes regarding some while not others-only because I have not been able to dwell into all of them in much detail as I would have liked.
1.Design as Reflection-in-Action.
Donald Schon, in his book The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action (1983) analyzed episodes of design processes of architects and interactions of architectural student/instructors when solving design problems. Based on this, he developed a theory of design as reflection-in-action where he compares the structure of technical theoretical knowledge and knowledge-in-practice. Schon further displays the possibilities of this approach in other practices from engineering to business management to planning. For example through an examination of an `episode` of interaction recording between a developer and a planner; he provides implications of how both parties may increase source of satisfaction and degree of competence in the process. This approach, along with theories on how organizations learn developed by Schon and Argyris has lead to numerous publications, further development of theories as well as application to cases in a variety of disciplines. Central references include:
Argyris, Chris. 1977. "Double-loop learning in Organizations."
Harvard Business Review, 55, 5: 115-125.
Argyris, Chris. 1990. Overcoming Organizational Defenses:
Facilitating Organizational Learning. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Argyris, Chris. 1991. "Teaching Smart People How to Learn." Harvard
Business Review, May- June: 99-109.
Argyris, Chris. 1992. On Organizational Learning. Oxford: TJ Press.
Argyris, Chris. 1993. Knowledge for Action. A Guide to Overcoming
Barriers to Organizational Change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Argyris, Chris, and Donald A. Schon. 1974. Theory in practice:
increasing professional effectiveness (1st ed.). San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Argyris, Chris, and Donald A. Schon. 1978. Organizational learning: a
theory of action perspective. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company.
Argyris, Chris, and Donald A. Schon. 1990. Two Conceptions of
Causality. The Case of Organizational Theory and Behavior. [Working
paper.] Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Business School and MIT
Department of Urban Planning.
Argyris, Chris, and Donald A. Schon. 1996. Organizational learning
II. Theory, Method, and Practice. Reading, Massachusetts:
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Argyris, Chris, Robert Putnam, and Diana McLain Smith. 1985. Action
Science. Concepts, Methods, and Skills for Research and Intervention.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schon, Donald A. 1983. The Reflective Practitioner. New York: Basic Books Inc.
Schon, Donald A. 1987. Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publications.
Schon, Donald A. 1991. The Reflective Turn. Case Studies In and On
Educational Practice. New York: Teachers College Press.
Senge, Peter M. 1990. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of
the Learning Organization. London: Century Business.
Senge, Peter. 1999. Creative Tension. Executive Excellence, 16, 1: 12-13.
Senge, Peter, Charlotte Roberts, Richard Ross, Bryan Smith, and Art
Kleiner. 1994. The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook. London: Nicholas
Brealey Publishing.
Senge, Peter, Art Kleiner, Charlotte Roberts, Richard Ross, George
Roth, and Bryan Smith. 1999. The Dance of Change. The Challenges of
Sustaining Momentum in Learning Organizations. London: Nicholas
Brealey Publishing.
2. Case Study Analysis of Design Process with Multiple Architects:
In order to "provide a framework for architectural design management in order to be applied in multi-architect projects", Sebastian has analyzed the processes of two projects in The Netherlands, `The Resident` and `City Centre of Almere`. Both of these projects included collaboration of numerous architects. Interviewing the stakeholders in the projects as well as collecting documentation, he studied and compared technical, economical and political difficulties, strategies adopted to phase the projects, organizational scheme of the main actors in design collaboration, use of design workshops, etc. The suggestions derived from the analysis of these projects, which Rizal was also involved in professionally, has implications for a new design management approach in practice.
Sebastian, Rizal "Multi-Architect Design Collaboration on Integrated Urban Complex Development in the Netherlands" . Journal of Design Research (electronic journal). Issue 2003.1
Web site: http://jdr.tudelft.nl/
3. Practicing Architects Analyze their Processes at RMIT
For over fifteen years, the Masters and PhD program in RMIT University, Australia invites architects and designers, who have already established a design practice as professionals, to critically reflect on their work so as to understand it and use this understanding to enhance their practices. Thus in the program, the use of reflection (as in Schon`s terminology) is an integrated part of researching the design activity that the candidates are embodied in. `Designing Reflections: Reflections on design` introduces the university's program with it's underlying theoretical assumptions and framework, mechanisms and administration. On the other hand, `The Practice of Practice` is a collection of essays by the researcher/practitioners about their studies and involvement in the program. These essays are explorations into how the practitioners do what they do; with unique approaches, tools, processes and products - and thus contribute to the knowledge of practice as well as laying grounds for new approaches in the practices itself.
Glanville, Ranulph and Leon van Schaik. 2003. Designing reflections:
Reflections on design. In: Durling, David and Kazuo Sugiyama,
editors. (2003) Proceedings of the Third Conference Doctoral
Education in Design 14-17 October 2003. Japan: University of Tsukuba.
35-42. ISBN 4-998076-2-7
--- Check out Leon Von Schaik`s website as he will post the above article on line soon-- http://www.leonvanschaik.com/
van Schaik, L The Practice of Practice: practice based research in
architecture. In van Schaik L. (ed) The Practice of Practice: research
in the medium of design (2003) Melbourne, RMIT University Press pp 12 -
19. ISBN 0 86459 247 7
--- If you wish a copy of this introductory essay by van Schaik you can e-mail me for the request at [log in to unmask] .
The web site for info about the program:
http://www.rmit.edu.au/browse?SIMID=313up363f063z
5. Designing, Consensus Building and Negotiations
John Forester has developed theories of design as well as planning especially regarding negotiations in practice. Analyzing meeting episodes between planners, architects and other stakeholders, Forester approaches design as not an individual process taking place at a desk, but as `making sense together in practical conversations` (1985). Therefore, he investigates how various stakeholders, particularly planners can influence negotiations in these conversations by reframing their and others` roles in the process. On the other hand, the book `Consensus Building` (Susskind et al, 1999) is a very comprehensive sourcebook where initially basic theoretical principles are presented by researchers followed by numerous case studies --including urban design meetings --, which are evaluated by professionals with different backgrounds based on these principles.
Forester, J. "Designing: Making Sense Together in Practical Conversations". Journal of Architectural Education 38/3 (1985). 14-19.
Forester, J. "Sources of Influence in Planning practice and Their Implications for Development Negotiations", in The Design Professions and the Built Environment, Ed. Knox, P. Nichols Publishing Company, 1988. 208-233.
Susskind, L, S. McKearnan and J. Thomas-Larmer. The Consensus Building Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Reaching Agreement. Sage, 1999.
6. Value Systems of Architects with Respect to Clients and Users in Practice.
My initial experience in professional practice has been related to questions of interaction with clients and users. This, in my dissertation, led me to develop a model of the impact of knowledge nad values regarding clients and users on decisions and action at the phases of design practice. By interviewing 25 practicing architects, I analyzed their guiding values regarding of how they `ought to` act particularly in times of conflict with clients, and how these reflect on their actual design decisions and outcome; and how they viewed their roles and responsibilities as professionals with respect to users. The analysis allows the understanding and comparison of underlying assumptions and professional convictions, their influences on the self-images of architects and impact on project processes and products.
Altay, B. "Professional Value Systems of Architects with Respect to Clients and Users in Contemporary Residential Design Practice". PhD Dissertation, Bilkent University, Ankara. 2000.
If you require more info on this thesis and copy of unpublished paper, you can email me at
[log in to unmask]
4. User Centred Design Research at Danfoss.
The manufacturing company Danfoss A/S, in Denmark has a department `User Centred Design Group` which aims at increasing usability of its products, and increasing user participation. With the conception that design and product development is a social process, studies focus on collaboration and learning in practice with emphasis on aspects of communication within the design team and intercommunication between team members and other interest groups, which include potential and present customers. The use of tools such as video as an integral aspect of design research process are carried out. The collaboration of Danfoss with Universities such as Institute of Technology and Social Sciences at the technical University of Denmark results in feedback not only to the practice/products of the firm but also a resource for the university.
Brandt, E. (2001)
Event-Driven product Development: Collaboration and learning. PhD
thesis, Technical University of Denmark.
ISBN: 87-90855-35-3
You can download full thesis from website:
http://space.interactiveinstitute.se/staff/Eva.Brandt/index.html
Buur, Jacob, Thomas Binder and Eva Brandt. (2000) "Taking video beyond `hard data` in user centred design". Proposed for Participatory Design Conference, New York 2000
website path to the above paper:
http://space.interactiveinstitute.se/Space_Publications/buur_TakingVideobeyond.pdf
7. IDEO- The Use of Research To Reveal Creativity in Design Process:
The US based industrial design firm IDEO has been using research in many ways. Initially, research has been integrated into their practices to explore customer/user behavior, providing direct input for successful product design. Moreover, researchers have carried out in-depth studies of firms` working methods and design output; such as design workshops, brainstorming sessions, the structure and dynamics of the studio. There is a range of literature available that presents these findings - from articles in academic journals, to-the-general-audience books on design and management strategies as well as visual and written presentation of the design products themselves.
Hargadon, A. and R, Sutton. "Technology Brokering and Innovation in a Product Development Firm." Administrative Science Quarterly 42 (1997): 716-749.
Kelley, Tom and Jonathan Litman. The Art of Innovation: Lessons in Creativity from Ideo, America`s Leading Design Firm. Doubleday, 2001.
Myerson, Jeremy. IDEO: Masters of Innovation. Te Neues, 2001
Sutton, R and A, Hargadon. "Brainstorming Groups in Context: Effectiveness in a
Product Design Firm." Administrative Science Quarterly 41 (1996): 685-718.
8. Creating Breakthrough Ideas
There is an increase in the cooperation of social science research and design taking place in the product development industry. Creating Breakthrough Ideas is a collection of essays on the many aspects of such a collaboration. Thus many firms besides IDEO (which is also included in the book) employ this approach such as SONY, GVO, XEROX, Kinematic, SonicRim. Research and tools of ethnography are being used in various phases in design and product development, ranging from creating the collaborative corporate work environment; phases of design process such as problem definition, design development, evaluation of prototypes; perspectives of the collaborating stakeholders including designers, as well as consumer behavior/user research. The contributors to the book come from different backgrounds such as designers, anthropologists, clients, researchers and managers and offer a rich variety of perspectives and experiences.
Squires, S and Bryan Byrne , eds. Creating Breakthrough Ideas: The Collaboration of Anthropologists and Designers in the Product Development Industry. Bergin and Garvey: CT, 2002
9. Other Industrial Design Practice Related References:
Industrial Designers Society of America (Eds). Design Secrets: Products: 50 Real-Life Product Design Projects. Rockport Publishers, 2001.
Industrial Design Workshop I: The Creative Process Behind Product Design
Books Nippan, 1993.
ASIN: 4872462580
Industrial Design Workshop II: The Creative Processs Behind Product
Design. MEISEI Publications ISBN4-938812-01-0
Kanbar, Maurice. Secrets from an Inventors Notebook. Penguin, 2002
Kao, John, R.M Kanter and F. Wiersema (eds). Innovation : Breakthrough Thinking at 3M, DuPont, GE, Pfizer, and Rubbermaid. Harperbusiness, 1997.
Kunkel, Paul. Digital Dreams: the Work of the Sony Design Centre. Universe Books, 1999.
Kunkel, Paul and Rich English. Appledesign: The Work of the Apple Industrial Design Group. Graphis, 1997.
ASIN: 1888001259
Manzini, Enzio. The Materials of Invention. Cambridge MA: MIT, 1989.
Marzano, Stefano. Creating Value by Design: Thoughts and Facts
Lund Humphries Pub Ltd, 1999.
ISBN: 0853317577.
Schmittel, Wolfgang. Design, Concept, Realisation. Zurich: ABC Verlag, 1975.
ASIN: 3855040389;
10. Other Related Websites:
International Society for Systems Science:
http://www.isss.org
Advanced Design Insitute
http://www.advanceddesign.org/
NextDesign Leadership Institute
http://www.nextd.org/
Burcak Altay
SOM
Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, LLP
14 Wall Street,
New York, New York 10005
Phone: 212 298-0290
Fax: 212 298-9500
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