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Dear Ken, Thank you again for your time and well educated correction of my post. First of all let me acknowledge that you (among other things) underline the importance of books (or manuscripts) as an evidence of “knowledge production” . Secondly, I didn’t meant that Universities copied Academies. I wrote that “the research university copied methods of Academies” So I’m speaking of an entity that emerged from the Humboldt reform (matured from several influences, the major one of course, previous universities) Anyway, I must clarify that “copying from” was a colloquial to say that MODERN ACADEMIES, also influenced the creation of the RESEARCH UNIVERSITY, (defined in Prussia and adopted in a complex historical process by the American Colleges of the mid XIX century). What I was thinking about was not about research itself, but were about three important methodological changes that emerged in the period between the 1500’s and early 1800’s mostly in Academies: The conference speech, the research paper, and the seminar. The seminar would need further discussion, but let us get back to it in a near future. And so, I’m getting back to the original theme of this thread under the other title “What is (should be) a PhD curriculum?” Here we go what are the methods and the outcomes that students should be trained on rather than the subjects of their research. Best regards from dry Lisbon, Eduardo Eduardo Corte-Real PhD Arch. Associate Professor Professor Associado com Agregação [log in to unmask] IADE- Universidade Europeia Av. Dom Carlos I, nº4, 1200-649 Lisboa, Portugal T: +351 213 939 600 > No dia 27/01/2018, às 11:45, Ken Friedman <[log in to unmask]> escreveu: > > Dear Eduardo, > > This is a small note at the side of the thread to offer a modest historical correction to some of the points in your post concerning universities, academies, and research. > > Several different kinds of institutions have been labelled academies. Some of these have nothing to do with art or design, but instead with language, national literature, natural science, or other fields. Others were homes to art, design, architecture and other fields. > > Some well known academies involved research. Many academies did not. Some academies were effectively honorary societies. Others determined the words that would enter the official vocabulary of a language. Still others were institutions where people taught and learned a professional skill. > > Since the time of Plato’s Academy in the 4th century BC, these different kinds of institution have used the name “academy” for many purposes. Each of these many kinds of academy has laid claim to one part or another of Plato’s philosophical heritage — including subjects and disciplines that Plato would not have considered academic subjects in the first academy. > > Masters and scholars at early Western universities conducted research. At Oxford, for example, Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175-1253) was a major contributor to the development of mathematics and physics, and Roger Bacon (c. 1220-1292) worked in physics, optics, linguistics, and other subjects. At Paris, Peter Abelard (1079-1142) worked in dialectic, logic, exegetics, and theology. > > Optics and physics were added to the quadrivium by the end of the 1200s, joining arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. All of these were research fields. The subjects of the trivium were also fields for research as well as teaching — grammar, rhetoric, and logic. The early university saw significant research in linguistics, exegetics, and theology, along with philosophy, civil law, canon law, Roman law, and natural law. In addition, there were medical studies and medical research, though these were separated from the practice of surgery. > > One reason this may not be as visible to people as they might otherwise be is the fact that this research was communicated only in manuscript and lecture prior to the invention of the printing press in the 1400s. The academies of the 1500s came into being in the era of book production and moveable type. > > In 1400, there was not one printed book in all of Europe. A century later, early printers had produced over 9,000,000 books. By 1563, the year given in your post, this number was greater still. > > The massive discovery and production of carefully prepared and corrected editions of classical texts was a major industry, in great part involving the work of scholars and masters associated with universities. Because there were few paid university positions in those days, many masters and scholars traveled freely between and among universities. They sometimes taught and they also worked in quasi-independent ways. Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536) was the great example of this kind of traveling scholar in the early days of book production. He studied and worked at Paris, Cambridge, and Leuven, among other universities. Erasmus’s editions and translations hundreds of thousands of copies in Erasmus’s lifetime. These all required research in the humanities and liberal arts — all by one university scholar. Erasmus himself corresponded with over 500 scholars and masters at universities across Europe. All this took place before 1563. > > What you propose is not the case. It is not accurate to say that “the research university copied the type of knowledge production (updated, timely, and connected to the world) existing in the academies (of science, letters, and … art).” > > This kind of work took place since the beginning of the Western universities. The people who did this work belonged to an international network of scholars and masters. Some were more advanced than others, some were better than others, but the people in these networks kept each other updated and timely, and they were indeed connected to the larger world of affairs across Europe. > > Some academies became centers for science, letters, and art in the years after 1563, but not all. These were followed by the Royal Society and then by the development of journals. As times changed, some individuals took part in several networks. > > Research universities existed for five centuries before the 1560s. The types of knowledge production that you describe exemplified the patterns of university life during all that time. Universities did not copy a type of knowledge production from academies. > > What changed was the ways in which technology, new institutions, and evolving networks influenced all these many kinds of systems. > > Yours, > > Ken > > Ken Friedman | Editor-in-Chief | 设计 She Ji. The Journal of Design, Economics, and Innovation | Published by Tongji University in Cooperation with Elsevier | URL: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/she-ji-the-journal-of-design-economics-and-innovation/ <http://www.journals.elsevier.com/she-ji-the-journal-of-design-economics-and-innovation/> > > Chair Professor of Design Innovation Studies | College of Design and Innovation | Tongji University | Shanghai, China ||| Email [log in to unmask] <mailto:[log in to unmask]> | Academia http://swinburne.academia.edu/KenFriedman <http://swinburne.academia.edu/KenFriedman> | D&I http://tjdi.tongji.edu.cn <http://tjdi.tongji.edu.cn/> > > > > > > > -- > > Ken Friedman | Editor-in-Chief | 设计 She Ji. The Journal of Design, Economics, and Innovation | Published by Tongji University in Cooperation with Elsevier | URL: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/she-ji-the-journal-of-design-economics-and-innovation/ > > Chair Professor of Design Innovation Studies | College of Design and Innovation | Tongji University | Shanghai, China ||| Email [log in to unmask] | Academia http://swinburne.academia.edu/KenFriedman | D&I http://tjdi.tongji.edu.cn > > > > > > > ----------------------------------------------------------------- > PhD-Design mailing list <[log in to unmask]> > Discussion of PhD studies and related research in Design > Subscribe or Unsubscribe at https://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/phd-design > ----------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------- PhD-Design mailing list <[log in to unmask]> Discussion of PhD studies and related research in Design Subscribe or Unsubscribe at https://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/phd-design -----------------------------------------------------------------