Critical-Geography-F orum-Online

Per Linskog
 

First, I wish to say that I agree that it is not appropriate to remain a fellow of the RGS after the events in Nigeria. However, we must question whether it makes sense to leave the Society without being sure that it will result in Shell's termination of its RGS sponsorship. Such actions do not help the Ogoni  people, nor do they highlight more general issues of local and global dependencies. I am convinced that more attention should be paid to the Third World activities not only of Shell and other oil companies but also of many other companies. The chances of influencing the RGS are of course so much stronger if we remain within it, but perhaps it makes little real difference whether a few radical geographers leave or stay in the Society. What may make a difference is if we succeed in influencing other scientists and other people.

Second, I want to argue that it is necessary to adopt an historical perspective on the sciences including geography in order to understand the concealed, deeply rooted values which are specifically of European origin and which characterise all modern and postmodern societies (Amin, 1985; Amin, 1988; Blaut, 1993). Those who argue that objectivism and neutrality are possible neglect to see the significance for sciences today of the values inherited in or from western societies. It is often assumed that what is desirable for Europe and for modern Europeans is also desirable for other peoples, and that this is an objective and academically neutral stance. On the other hand, negative consequences upon other societies than European are often not considered to be of importance. It may be particularly difficult to get support for such views among Europeans at a time of mass unemployment.

An illuminating example is the concept of 'development'. It is difficult to find anything but a European perspective in the way it is interpreted. Knowledge, experience and values of non- European societies are rarely taken into account when the objectives of development are discussed. Sometimes lip-service is paid in development programmes, as in 'rapid rural appraisals', but the basic underlying understanding of the concept development is that it remains resolutely western (Sahlins, 1972). The core values of other societies therefore have little place in development efforts, even though the way these societies make use of the environment is often much more sustainable than in western societies. The lifestyles of relatively few affluent people in the West may cause far more damage globally than the supposedly 'over-populated' societies of the Third World (cf. Escobar, 1989; Escobar & Alvarez, 1992; Escobar, 1995).

In order to understand the RGS-Shell dispute, it is necessary to ask the question put by Claude Meillassoux (1992) - 'Pour qui naissent les Africains?' . This acknowledges the significance of a Eurocentric perspective for the interpretation of society as well as sciences. Not just the RGS but also geographic and scientific societies in general have a Eurocentric perspective. Western development concepts stand against non-western. That is why the Ogoni had such difficulties to get support for their claims. Human rights and environmental rights are so much weaker, if they exist at all, in Third world countries. At the same time, RGS takes pride in promoting increased recognition 'of the importance to society of environmental knowledge and responsibility, of sustainable development, of understanding multicultural societies'. Is this not equally applicable all over the world? The Ogoni-Shell dispute simply would not have gone so far in Europe or in other western societies, where scrutiny of those in power is so much stronger, by environmental movements and other popular movements.

Geographers as well as others, should ask themselves whether there are different conditions for people depending upon the country in which they live. If so, it could also be argued that different criteria for different economic, political and social groups should be applied. And that could form a very profitable way of creating wealth for some, while at the same time creating poverty for others. That is, if some groups manage to control, or hold hostage, other groups without revolts. This is an indication of the place of ethics within geography.  I believe that we, as geographers, have a duty to defend the rights of the poor and oppressed. How can witness we see events like those in Nigeria or in Chad where oil companies have 'employed' people to threaten, scare and kill those of the local population who do not agree to leave regions which are believed to have oil resources (Claude Meillassoux, personal communication), and at the same time close our eyes? Our geographical profession does enable us to see and understand the global dependencies upon which western wealth has been constructed over the last few hundred years or so. We do have a responsibility to act and to support people who try to defend their environment from destruction by multinational and national companies but also more generally from the negative consequences of the affluence of western life-styles and western society.

In the past, there has not been much debate to what extent and at what price Shell, as well as so many other multinational companies, may have access to the natural resources of Third World countries. Rather, their rights have been taken for granted, as long as they pay something, which often means nothing to the indigenous people but only to the government. With the growing globalisation and continued growth of Western capital in the Third World, many Third World governments may sell out their land at bargain prices and whole countries may become, at least economically, governed from the West. Foreign capital may therefore become the strongest political power in Third World countries. This will then not be far from asking 'political' guardianship for those countries that do not please the West. And people may increasingly argue as has Paul Johnson that 'Colonialism's back - and not a moment too soon', as 'for more than 30 years the international community has been treating symptoms, not causes. The basic cause is obvious but never publicly admitted: some states are not yet fit to govern themselves. Their continued existence ... is a threat to the stability of their neighbours ... There is a moral issue here: the civilized world has a mission to go out to these desperate places and govern'. Johnson draws the conclusion that countries like Somalia, Liberia, Haiti, Zaire, Angola and Mozambique should be governed by trustees until it is 'reasonably certain that return to independence will be successful', which 'may last 50 years, or 100' (Johnson, 1993). I would not say that the RGS supports colonialism explicitly, although the Society, as most scientific societies, is clearly marked by its colonialist past. Shell has profited from the failures of African self-rule through liaison with a small elite. And silence in the RGS means tacit support for Shell's exploitation at the expense of the Ogoni people.

Such an evolution is the foundation for increasing global conflicts and may end in new world- wide wars. Perhaps geographers have neglected the study of the links between the use and exploitation of the environment and risks for conflicts and war, as has been more frequently studied in other disciplines (Gleditsch, 1997; Gleditsch, 1998; Homer-Dixon, 1994; Smith & Ostreng, 1997). If we want to avoid a new era of global colonialism with consequent conflicts, warfare and disasters, action should be taken now. It may be much more difficult, or impossible, also rather soon. The examples of Algeria, Liberia and Somalia may become reality in many parts of the world. I do not see any other solution than a more equitable world order as a means of avoiding a global breakdown of democracy, human and environmental rights and civil order. As Maxey's paper underlines, we are rarely free from the responsibilities for the presence of oppressive economic, political and social systems.

The implications of this debate are therefore not just for the RGS and Shell but equally for all geographers and all scientists, and perhaps for all human beings if we are to remain human and survive on this planet. The debate prompts us to ask what the limits to exploitation of other people are. Without a clear ethical code, I do not see any ways of limiting exploitation.  Multinational companies can exploit resources until the land is completely sterile, with the connivance of local governments, and without the least attention to the welfare of the people who live in the area. Perhaps we need to request all six billion with whom we share space to sign an ethical code. These debates have shown the strength of geography in education as they have highlighted the spatial and temporal interdependencies of human beings wherever we are on this planet earth. Increased riches for some simply mean increased poverty for others.
 

References

Amin, Samir (1985) La dèconnexion. Paris: Editions La Dècouverte (English edition: Delinking. Towards a polycentric world, London & New Jersey: Zed books, 1990)
Amin, Samir (1988) L'eurocentrisme: Critique d'un ideologie. Paris: Anthropos (English edition: Eurocentrism. New York: Monthly Review Press & London: Zed Books, 1989)
Blaut, James M. (1993) The Colonizer's Model of the World: Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History. New York and London: Guilford Publications
Escobar, Arturo (1989) Power and Visibility : the Invention and Management of Development in the Third World. Ann Arbor: U.M.I. Dissertation Information Service
Escobar, Arturo & Sonia E. Alvarez, eds. (1992) Making of Social Movements in Latin America : Identity, Strategy and Democracy. Boulder: Westview Press
Escobar, Arturo (1995) Encountering  Development: the  Making and  Unmaking of the Third  World. Princeton: Princeton University Press
Gleditsch, Nils Petter ed. (1997) Conflict and the Environment. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Gleditsch, Nils Petter (1998) Armed conflict and the environment: A Critique of the Literature, Journal of Peace Research 35:3, 381-400.
Homer-Dixon, Thomas F (1994) 'Environmental scarcities and violent conflict: evidence from cases, International  Security, 19:1, 5-40
Johnson, Paul (1993) Colonialism's back - and not a moment too soon, New York Times Magazine, April 18, 1993
Meillassoux, Claude (1992) Pour qui naissent les Africains? Le Monde Diplomatique., December 1992
Sahlin, Marshall (1972) Stone Age Economics. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton
Smith, Dan & Willy Ostreng eds. (1997) Research on environment, poverty and conflict. A proposal. Oslo: International Peace Research Institute, PRIO-report no 3/97

About Per Lindskog:  I am a lecturer at the Department of Geography, Institute of Tema, Linkoping University, Sweden. I have been a fellow of the RGS for more than 20 years,  and I acknowledge that I have had a firmly Eurocentric education.

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Author Denis Linehan 29 10 1998  Denis.Linehan@UCC.IE